Teaching Vocabulary to Learners of English As a Foreign Language

Vocabulary is clearly an essential part of Language learning and teaching vocabulary in a productive way is something which must be at the forefront of our minds as teachers of English. Teaching new words to learners of English as a Foreign Language at first seems quite a straightforward proposition. You provide the appropriate word and meaning much like an automatic dictionary and move on. However, the teacher is far more than merely a speaking dictionary.

There are many things to think about when teaching vocabulary.

How many words should you try and teach students in one class? How do you decide which new words you should teach to your students? What criteria do you use to decide which words are most useful? How do you guide the students themselves in recognising which words are most useful for them? What is the importance of active and passive vocabulary? Why are frequency and coverage important? Why is register important? Do all students need to learn the same words?

How many new words should you think about teaching in a class?

There is no definitive figure here of course, as every student is different, but lower level students can generally manage about 5-8 new words of vocabulary a day. At higher levels usually a few more.

What new words should you teach to your students?

Even if you wanted to, you clearly can't teach students every word in the English Language. There are upwards of 500,000 words in English so you clearly only know a fraction of them yourself. A typical B2 (Upper Intermediate) learners' dictionary contains about 55,000 words of vocabulary. The average native speaker probably uses less than 20,000 words actively. Reducing huge quantities of words to manageable learning is a significant challenge for ELT and one of the great challenges for teaching vocabulary is which words to choose.

What criteria do you use in choosing what words to teach?

Frequency and Coverage:

Choose words to teach that are frequently used. Telling students about how often words are used or in what situations you might use them (formal, informal, academic, spoken or written English etc) is something invaluable that they often can't get from a dictionary. Clearly, the most frequently used words will be the most valuable to learn. The words taught also need to be assessed in the light of topic, function, structure, teachability, needs and wants.

Polysemic Words and Word Building:

In English, many words are polysemic - have more than one meaning - and can be used as nouns, verbs or part of a phrasal verb. It is important to bear in mind these alternative meanings and uses when teaching new words. It would appear logical to learn these polysemic words as a priority. The important point to remember when explaining meaning is that context will show which of the various meanings and uses is intended.

Word formation is an essential part of vocabulary teaching, for example, the way that root forms of words change to form adjectival and adverbial forms with the addition of prefixes and suffixes. Learning about word formation raises students' awareness of the language they use. Teach students word building skills. For example, if you teach the verb 'to advance', you might also teach the adjective 'advanced' and the noun 'advancement.' This gives the student extra vocabulary immediately but it also indicates broader patterns within the language. For example, you can point out that 'ment' is a common noun ending. (Others include 'ness' 'ence' 'ation' 'ism' etc.) Typical adjective endings would include 'ed' 'ing' 'ent' 'ive' 'ical' etc.

How do words lead onto other words? How can you point students towards patterns in the language?

Another important aspect of teaching vocabulary is 'word grammar', some words trigger/collocate certain grammatical patterns. Countable/uncountable nouns are an example of this, the former can be used with both singular and plural verbs, while the latter with only singular verbs. Other nouns are neither countable nor uncountable but have a fixed form and collocate with only singular or plural verbs, e.g. people (plural), the news (singular).

Register:

Register refers to a particular style of language relevant to a particular situation or context. For example the way a doctor talks to a patient about a prognosis/diagnosis will differ in style from the way the same doctor will relate the same information to a fellow colleague. Similarly, the way we speak in a job interview will differ from the style of language we use in conversation with close friends. Students need to be aware how certain words fit into different registers. When explaining vocabulary, bear in mind that explanations need to include relevant aspects of context and usage, e.g. 'mate' is a synonym of friend but is used colloquially typically for males.

Topic Area Words:

You could select a theme such as 'weather.' The ensuing vocabulary would include: rain, sunny, cold, windy etc. This is particularly useful if the student is interested in a particular topic or if a topic area has a direct relation to their life or job. Not all vocabulary or topic areas are of equal importance to every student.

Passive and active Vocabulary:

New words enter the Passive Vocabulary of students. Students may understand meaning, especially in the specific context where they see a new word used but as yet cannot use the word independently themselves. To ensure words enter the students' Active Vocabulary, regular revision in meaningful situations is essential. It is estimated that a student needs to encounter a word 10-12 times before it fully enters their Active Vocabulary. Vocabulary, in the same way as Grammar, is learned through use. It is therefore very important to give students opportunities within the classroom to use the new vocabulary themselves. Students remembrance of words is relative to the degree which they have used the word, thus the more we get students to use words in a task of some sort - finding opposites, transformation etc - the better they will remember them. Similarly, if we involve students in presenting new words the better they will remember them. Hence, acting out definitions in a dramatic way - trip, stagger etc - should lead to deeper learning of the words. Sense memory becomes involved, taste, smell, touch etc, which further enhances recall. Discovery techniques where students have to find out the meanings of words themselves will be more effective than standard teacher presentation of new vocabulary.

There may be many words that students will not need to use actively themselves at a particular stage in their learning career and therefore they can remain in the students' Passive Vocabulary. For example, at Beginner level it is enough to know 'big' and 'small'. At Intermediate levels, you might begin to use 'huge' 'massive' 'tiny' 'minute' etc. At Advanced levels, you might use words like 'vast' or 'minuscule' to give a different shade of meaning or to adopt a more formal or academic tone. The point is that at Beginner level it is clearly not practical or useful spending time trying to get the student to use a word like 'vast'.

Vocabulary Testing:

Vocabulary testing has several forms, and as with all techniques in ELT the more variety in the classroom the better.

Examples include:

1. Multiple choice Questions
2. Matching (opposites/complements)
3. Odd one out
4. Writing sentences
5. Dictation
6. Close/gap-fill (with and without wordlist)
7. Sentence completion

Conclusion:

In the classroom, the teacher remains central to the effective acquisition of new vocabulary. Every student is different so their language learning needs and vocabulary requirements are different too. As a teacher, you are interacting with students face to face on a human level. You have an expertise about who the student is and what is useful for them to learn that no dictionary or computer programme could ever have.

Literature in an ESL TEFL TESOL Classroom - Teaching Literature to English Language Learners

Professor Colin MacCabe of the University of Exter School of English says that to truly know a Language, you must know something of the literature of a Language.

Literature is intellectually stimulating because a Book allows a reader to imagine worlds they are not familiar with. This is done through the use of descriptive language. In order to understand, the reader will create their vision of what the writer is saying. In this sense, the reader becomes a performer or an actor in a communicative event.

Using literature versus a communicative textBook changes the learning approach from learning how to say into learning how to mean (grammar vs. creative thinking). Conversation-based programs tend to focus on 'formulas' used in contextual situations so there is little allowance for independent thought and adaptation of language. On the other hand, literature-based programs focus on personal interpretation of the language so students begin to experiment with the language. This experimentation can be especially helpful to the students for use in different subjects such as science.

Per Carter and Long, the 3 main approaches to using Literature in a language classroom are:

1. Cultural model

Based on the notion that literature is the expression of:

Socio-cultural attitudes.

Aspirations of individual societies.

Mythic and universal values.

Text is regarded as finished product.
Associated with teacher-centered approach

2. Language model

Literature is taught for the promotion of:
Vocabulary
Structure
Language manipulation

Puts students in touch with the subtle and varied creative uses of language.
Emphasizes language observation.
Student-centered methodology.

3. Personal growth model

Concerned more with student's:
Maturity as individuals
Progress as individuals through reading

'Literature for life' approach
Promotes individual evaluation and judgment.
Learner-centered approach.

When adding literature into the classroom remember to choose some good Books that students can relate to. Visual books are very helpful to help spark interest in children. For older students, you can incorporate questions into the reading process that require thought and expression from the students. In addition, set aside specific times for reading. Don't worry if students don't respond well when you begin because they will start to enjoy it more (and therefore interact more) as they relate to the stories and experiences shared.

Some Literature School Basics by Lorraine Curry of the Easy Homeschooling Companion

1) Select a number of well chosen books.

2) Set a particular time to read each book.

3) Let nothing interfere with your scheduling.

4) Use discussion and research to create interest.

5) Process, by writing or narrating.

Each child should have the opportunity to read aloud each day to encourage pronunciation practice. During this time you can note and correct mispronounced words.

Older Students

*Present questions that require thought. Some questions may not have one perfect answer. Some may not have an answer at all. Nevertheless, thought is stimulated and learning takes place.

*Copy challenging writing in order to practice English skills and increase comprehension.

*Do extensive research in order to understand deeper writing such as poems. *Research authors, times and places.

*Report by presenting orally or compiling results of research in writing. The quantity and quality of written assignments should increase with older students.

*Solidify language-learning with a formal grammar course and a formal writing course

Some good online literature teacher resources:

Total ESL Resources: totalesl.com/resource.php

Total ESL Lesson Plans: totalesl.com/lesson.php

The Children's Literature Web Guide: career.vt.edu/JOBSEARC/interview/TEACHER.htm

Literature.org: literature.org

English Literature on the Web: lang.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~matsuoka/EngLit.html

The Literature Network: online-literature.com

Bibliomania: bibliomania.com

Literature Learning Ladders: eduscapes.com/ladders

BBC Arts and Books: bbc.co.uk/arts/books

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What is a Communicative Approach to English Language Teaching?

A Communicative Approach?

There are a variety of approaches to teaching English as a second or foreign Language. One aspect of English and foreign Language teaching involves using a Communicative Approach. But what exactly does using a communicative approach mean?

Well for me, a Communicative Approach to Language teaching includes several distinct aspects. We'll mention two of them here. Applying these aspects means that language teaching and learning become far more than a series of grammar lessons and vocabulary lists. For language teaching and learning to be truly communicative, it must not only be in context, but used to convey ideas, preferences, thoughts, feelings and information in a way that is addressed to reach others. Usually, I address communicative language teaching through the use of two approaches:

o Content-Based Instruction (CBI)

o Task-Based language teaching (TBLT)

Definitions of CBI vs. TBL in ELT

In CBI (Widdowson, 1978), the focus of classes is not on the language and structure itself, but rather on learners acquiring skills or knowledge using English as the language of instruction. If you teach a learner how to repair computers, for example, and use English as the language of instruction, the learners improve their language communicative skills while learning foremost the skill of computer repair.

Task-Based Learning in ELT

In the TBLT approach (Willis, 1996), the focus is on providing communicative activities needed for English language learning, performing tasks using the target language (English) and using the English language in other ways for learning tasks. Examples would be having learners buy postage to mail a letter by first teaching them the structures and language needed to perform the task, then actually having them do it. Another example would be teaching learners the needed English to order a meal in a restaurant, or make a shopping purchase, then allowing them to complete such tasks on their own using unguided or free speech.

In the publication, "Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching" by Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers (CUP, 2001) more than a dozen approaches to ELT are explored in depth. From the now defunct Grammar-Translation and Situational approaches to Total Physical Response (TPR), Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) and Lexical approaches to the Communicative approaches, the Natural approach and Cooperative Learning, English and foreign language teachers world wide have a much greater language teaching approach repertoire than ever before.

So, what's it going to be then?

The Importance Of The English Language

Frankly speaking, it is highly essential to know the Language for communication. In general, the most popular Language is English. In this computer age, English is the only language that any one can understand. So to say, it has become as an ideal language for expressing our feelings. First, we have to learn the language and then we have to gain fluency in the language. Unless we have the fluency in English language, it would not be possible to work with the computer. If you do not know English, then you would be in need of a translator to do the job.

The first stage of learning this language would be very interesting. Once you are fluent with the alphabets, slowly you can learn many words. It would always be better to follow the method of reading first, then writing. You can use the picture Books for this purpose. When you feel that you are familiar with the words, you can form sentences. This is the most interesting stage to learn. You just think of a sentence in your mother language, and try to write the same sentence in English. There could be some mistakes. But you should not bother about it. But, you have to write the same sentence using many different words till you are satisfied with your sentence. If you follow this way, very soon you can create sentences of your own.

The next step is learning the grammar of the language. It is quite simple and very systematic compared with other languages. There are certain rules and regulations for each and every topic in grammar of this language. As long as you follow the rules and regulations, it would be a difficult task to make mistakes. You would gain that much guidance from the grammar.
The presentation is the most important factor in communicating your feelings. So, naturally you must be sure while you are presenting. what you really wish to say. At any point, do not try to write or speak, beyond your capability. Even if it is a small and simple sentence, it would reach the receiver perfectly. This is our basic idea. Slowly, you can improve the standard of your language by practice. If you know to form the sentences, it is more than enough to go deep into the subject. Though this only an article about the importance of the English Language, we have to learn some of the basic points in presenting the sentences.
There are three different types of sentences: They are,
1. Statements. 2. Interrogative sentence. 3. Imperative sentence. 4. Exclamatory sentence. To begin with, you must know the difference between a phrase and a sentence.

Phrase is a group of words, which gives meaning, but not complete meaning.
A sentence is a group of words, which makes a complete sense.

1. Statement: The sentence starting with nouns or pronouns is known as statement.

Example: Rome is a church city.

2. Interrogative sentence: There are two types of interrogative sentences.

a. "wh" type question. The sentences starting with the following fords are "wh" type question. What, When, Where, Who, How many, How long and etcetera.
Example: Why did you come late? 2. What are you doing there?

b. "yes or no" type question. For which sentences you get the reply either with yes or no they are called yes or no type question.
Example: Is your father a doctor? The answer: No sir.

3. Imperative sentence: The sentence that gives command, request, and advice is known as Imperative sentence. Example: Walk on the pavement. 2. Eat regularly.

4. Exclamatory sentence: The sentence that expresses the sudden feelings or strong emotions is known as exclamatory sentence.

Example: Alas! He is dead. 2. Oh! What a beautiful sight.

When you are familiar with the above points, it would be very interesting to you to create many wonderful sentences.
In general, the sentences are divided into three different kinds. They are,
1. Simple sentence. 2. Compound sentence. 3. Complex sentence.

Though it very essential to have knowledge in handling the above sentences, we have to study them separately. In this essay, we are talking about the importance of the language.
Many people make mistakes even with the usage of articles. It is a pity that even scholars may make mistakes. So, you should not get dejected with your style of writing.

There is a lot of difference between these two. 1. a few 2. few
When you want to say that you have friends, you have to say that," I have a few friends."
When you want to say that you do not have friends, you have to say that, "I have few friends."

This is the opposite meaning of the word, many.
Apart from these, there are many points to be discussed later.
When you feel that you are already strong on the above subjects, you can develop your knowledge for betterment of your knowledge. As long as you educate yourself, you will come across many new things. There is no end for learning. All the above points are used in the normal usage of English. The literature value of the English Language is entirely different and should be dealt separately.

Benefits of Learning the English Language

Communication plays a vital role in today's global challenge, be it in business or personal affairs. Among the often used mediums for communication, the English Language serves as a pivotal force in bridging barriers in communication which can make or break international relations and state of affairs. Of the thousand or so business transactions that occur around the world in any given day, English dominates the front lines.

A Senior manager from Canada instructs business partners in the Philippines and Korea. An office manager from the United Kingdom drops a phone call to his contact in Japan, inquiring about his shipment of computer chips. In both examples, English primarily directs a surreptitious existence in the formation of global awareness and progress.

English is definitely a widely spoken Language, brandishing 400,000,000 individuals who speak it as a second Language and 350,000,000 or so claims it as their native tongue. Though the numbers do not necessarily imply the dominance of the English Language or the exact number of users, it does, however depict the significance of English in the mainstream of universal growth.

If you're from the United States, Canada or from any other native English-speaking nation, and you happen to visit an Asian country like Korea or the Philippines, you'll never feel left out as more and more people today try their hardest to attain a command of the English language. Proficient speakers of English, as a second language, can be found everywhere.

Most paradigms have shifted, giving importance to the English language, as it had before. Schools have begun to focus on providing quality English instruction to students in elementary, high school, and even college to prepare their students to be globally competent. Schools in Korea have made it a point to hire native English speakers to properly educate Korean students in English. This task is met with the goal of producing quality English speakers, who can communicate and be equally competitive in the business arena. Among those institutions that stand out in their drive to educate students in the English language; Worknplay (worknplay.co.kr), provides quality ESL training to it's teachers. It strives to provide quality English teachers to schools all over Korea, making students competitive in their academics and understanding of international affairs.

With this in mind, Asian countries should also take the foothold in improving the linguistic skills of their students, primarily the English language. Mastery of various languages will prepare everyone to be globally competitive.

New Syllabus 2005 - English Language For Secondary Schools, Form I - IV

INTRODUCTION

Tanzania is among African countries, which right after independence started to take measures on education developments through policies formulation, reviews, adjustments, and improvements. These measures include curriculum design and development for schools to meet national goals on education. English as one of the subjects taught in all education levels from primary school to tertiary level, its curriculum and teaching has being gone those changes since then. In viewing and analyzing the English syllabus used in Tanzanian schools particularly in ordinary level now, we should see the changes of last syllabus, which led to the current syllabus we have today. The last syllabus was introduced in 1996 and used up to 2005 where the current syllabus was introduced in use from January. The syllabus was improved to meet the needs, challenges and shortcomings of the former one. Students were given more activities; the syllabus focuses on student competencies rather than the former one, which focus more on contents. The syllabus was challenged that it did not bring competences that is why the standard of English has declined dramatically over the years, and the main cause of this decline is the insufficient teaching of English in schools following the English Language syllabus. This was seen by Allen K. (2008) in 'What happened to our good English? And wrote:

'Syllabus and textBooks have caused this... Secondary school students only fare marginally better, and yet secondary and tertiary education is all in English. They may be able to engage in simple dialogue but normally only after they have asked for the question/sentence to be repeated at least once. Again, fluent, complicated structures are mostly not understood at all. Written English is a greater problem. How many secondary school students write the almost nonsensical 'How are you? On my side, I'm fine and going on well with my daily activities'. Recently talking to university graduates who were embarking on post-graduate studies their lack of confidence in the Language was striking. To make conversation I needed to adopt very simple structures at a very slow, unnatural speed'.

This was also earlier seen by Cripe C & Dodd W. (1984) that suggested the authorities to work on a completely new syllabus for English Language teaching in schools. Such a syllabus could take into account that many more pupils progress to secondary school from primary school without facing English language good foundation.

In that view, this paper analyze the contemporary syllabus, by using some of the criteria including appropriateness, feasibility, utility, adequacy, content, method, scope and consistency between grades. Others are internal consistency, clarity, and up-to-datedness. These criteria will be on its structure, objectives, strengths and weaknesses that avail. It is important to do so in order to improve the standard of English in Tanzania as proficiency in the language. This is because teachers as main guides for instruction in their classrooms use national English syllabuses and in examinations. The syllabus was designed and prepared by Tanzania Institute of Education under the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.

ANALYSIS

Before the analysis, the definition of syllabus is given as the summary of the course; usually contain specific information about the course. (www.counselingcenter.uiuc.ed). Collins Essential English Dictionary defined syllabus as an outline or summary of the main points of a text or a course study. Syllabus analysis is the evaluation of the quantity of the syllabus (www.counselingcenter.uiuc.ed). So the purpose is to evaluate the quality of it developed by the institution.

The major areas analyzed in this ordinary level English syllabus are top cover, back cover, inside the top cover, part one and part two of it. The top cover present the title starting with United Republic of Tanzania on top then Ministry of Education and Culture now changed to Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, followed by English Language Syllabus for Secondary Schools, Form I - IV, 2005. Inside the cover on page (ii) copyright of the ministry is uttered followed by designed and prepared authority and address i.e. Tanzania Institute of Education. The next page (iii) is the table of contents.

The syllabus generally is divided into two main parts where the first is introduction, objectives of education in Tanzania, objectives of secondary education, general competence for Form I - IV, general objectives and organization of the syllabus. The second part consists of competences and objectives of the class followed by a table matrix layout, which shows topics, sub-topics, specific objectives, patterns/structures, contexts/situations, vocabulary/phrases, teaching/learning strategies, teaching/learning materials, assessments and number of periods with instructional time.

Introduction of the syllabus is well presented shortly expressing that the syllabus replaces the 1996 English Language edition, which has been phased out. It has been introduced for implementation from January 2005. The introduction could have been more attractive if it explained more the major reasons, which led to the phase out or change of the former one. Several inquiry skills and some inquiry levels are very briefly outlined in the introduction; it could be outlined to polish the part.

The objectives of education in Tanzania are clearly stated, meaningful and relevant to Tanzanian context as well as worldwide. They touch all disciplines of skills needed to the human being in the world. This is written the same in all syllabuses for subjects in that level nationally. The objectives are challengeable with the availability of resources in education both physical and human infrastructure in totality to cater the needs. In the report presented in the Conference of Commonwealth Ministers in Halifax, Canada 2000; by the minister of Education and Culture at the time says that; despite the government and the private sector efforts to provide secondary education in the country, the sub-sector had shortage of the science teachers especially in the rural areas, shortage of laboratories, shortage of equipments and other basic educational materials... It means that the objectives are clearly stated but not easy to achieve successfully.

The following section analyses the feasibility of the objectives of secondary education in Tanzania. The part started by defining the secondary education as a post primary formal education offers to learners who successfully completed seven years of primary education and have met the requisite entry qualification requirements. The objectives are stated to make the syllabus implement-able and feasible. However, it carries elements of behaviorists' approaches that emphasize the use of reinforcement and repetition. The challenge is how to fulfill the packages needed to meet those objectives. Obanya P. (2006) had seen it and pointed out that Africa is still trailing behind other regions of the world in its effort towards attaining the EFA (Education for All) goals. So to Tanzania among African countries. Further he said the successes and sustainability of the new vision of secondary school in African governments show an appropriate level of political will...stepping up the process of reform, mobilizing the required resources, ensuring a participatory process etc.

General competences for Form I - IV in part two are relevant and if they are to be, achieved changes are to be seen. Competences were added to this syllabus to meet the objectives of teaching English in secondary schools by focusing on the learner-centered education (LCE) rather than teacher centered education (TCE) which proved insufficient masterly of language formerly. Allen K; (ibid) supported the transformation and said that things could have improved in the early 2000s with the opening up of the school textBook market to private publishers and the permitted multi-textbooks. However, the standards in teaching English had already declined by then, and many teachers were not equipped to be able to choose the best books for their purposes. Teachers have mostly taken the multi-textbook system to mean that they choose one book from a selection of many, and so they still effectively only use one textbook. In really sense, general competences collaborate with national objectives.

The syllabus has utility and efficacy that is why general objectives are outlined to enable the student acquires knowledge and skills to practice and use the language in specific settings and remarkable performances. They include speaking and writing skills, reading skills, communication and demonstration skills. These are form of skills which Burt C. et al (1933) categorized them as skills, concepts, relationships and strategies. They said that these four categories should not be thought of a hierarchically linked in the learning process, they are to large extent interactive. If a student acquire the outlined objectives thoroughly she/he would be competent to use English language in the world of information and communication technologies. It is clearly seen that these objectives were derived from the national objectives because they comply with them.

Class level competences are the statements, which specify the abilities that are expected to be attained by students before the class objectives found at the beginning of the content of each class level. Objectives are statements of behavior that are stated immediately after class competences to be exhibited by each student at the end of given class. These are achievable in a class of a recommended number of students not exceeding thirty five in class at a time and with the competence of a teacher. However, in Tanzanian crowded classes environment of more than sixty students is very difficult to achieve such objectives. Sumra S. (2000) pointed out that the education policy needs to clarify in focusing on 'inputs' or 'outputs' and the meaning of - what is expected of all teachers and how this will be monitored and measured. Pre and in-service needs to be focused on teacher competence. The effectiveness of human and physical infrastructures should be assured and realized in our schools so that the objectives are achieved.

Class level competencies and objectives in each Form are not the same. They are articulated according to the topics arrangements in specific Form and the behavioral changes intended. Class level competence is appropriate in scope versus students' ability level. The new approach shifts the orientation of the content largely, but not exclusively, away from the rote memorization of factual knowledge to a competence based learning, which focuses much more on the understanding of concepts, and the acquisition of skills and competences.

The organization of topics and sub-topics, which are in the first and second column of the syllabus layout, shows that are completely designed to students ability. They diminish in number sequentially and consistent as they go to upper Form. While in Form I, there were sixteen topics and twenty-four subtopics, in Form II there were eleven topics and fifteen subtopics. In Form III and IV, there were six and five topics, fifteen and fourteen subtopics respectively. Some topics recur more than once but in advanced form. For instance, 'Expressing Opinion and Feelings' appeared in Form I, II, and III. 'Talking about Events' and 'Interpreting Literary work' appeared in Form I and II, while ' Listening for Information from different Sources', 'Reading Literary Work' and 'Writing Appropriate Language Content and Style' appeared in Form III and IV respectively. However, the topics are consistent and have sequential arrangements. The entire syllabus has credential internal consistency between components and their content scope.

In organizing the topics and other sub-heading, the structure of the syllabus is in matrix form layout. Form I classes for example have sixteen topics and twenty-four subtopics. Both are relevant to their level and the continuity of topics is maintained accordingly from simple to difficult and there is a link between them. The same applies up to Form IV. The objectives in each topic and subtopics are clearly articulated from Form I - IV, to meet the behavioral change intended. The analysis of topics and sub-topics show that there is continuity within and link between topics because sub-topics are presented under the main topics. This enables a teacher to understand and relate the topics with concepts and ideas. Change of behavior is taken into consideration during planning the lesson to teach to make sure the autonomy is attained. Autonomy refers to student's ability to organize his/her own learning activities.

Patterns or structures and variety of activities are relevant and adequately in providing, enough learning in every Form presented in the syllabus. It suggests use of variety activities including demonstration, dramatization, dialogue oral and written drills, songs, role-plays and games. These activities bring a vital role to students to master language skills, however, the nature of most Tanzanian crowded classes and shortage of teachers, this is a challenge to achieve successfully.

Context/Situations are provided in abundance and this will depend on how the responsible teacher opts to them depending on the natural setting of learning environment. Natural setting help the students the knowledge of skills they attain in their environment even after school. Vocabularies and phrases option provided are enough and relevant to the level of students.

The syllabus is adequate because in teaching and learning strategies throughout the syllabus, students are intended to develop fully speaking, writing, listening and arguing skills. They are adequately assisting the learners to attain the objectives. It is recommended that the list is not exhausted that the teacher will use more strategies depending on the needs where necessary. These include ear training, pronunciation and writing by using directives given in patterns/structures in third column of the syllabus.

There is no doubt about teaching and learning materials because they are well presented and suggested. The only slight doubt is that in rural areas, it might be difficult to access on television, video and audio cassettes because of shortage of power supply but with initiatives, it can be solved out. The levels of inquiry require students to be able to do something in the assessment and this is very well articulated in the part. There are one hundred and eighty four periods in a year, which shows at least there are seven periods in Form I and II; six periods in a week for Form III and IV. Each period is forty minutes.

The syllabus does not give suggestions, advice, or alternative program or prospectus to be used together or in place of itself. Again, it does not provide a list of selected text and reference books. It would be better if at least five textbooks and five reference books could be suggested in each topic. The national English syllabus serves as one of the main resources for English teaching and learning in secondary schools. Each teacher is given a copy of the national syllabus as a guide for the scope and depth of the content to be taught.

Inquiry is explicitly emphasized in the assessments section in the secondary school syllabus. This syllabus aims at stimulating pupils' curiosity and sense of enquiry which will in turn not only provide suitable basis for further study of the subject but also provide students with sufficient knowledge and understanding to make them become useful and confident citizens. The essence of such an enquiry is related to problem solving and reflecting on modern enterprise. During the course, students should acquire language abilities associated with language competences. Students should develop second language attitudes such as open mindedness and willingness to recognize alternative language skills of view. Moulali S. (2006) said that the main objective of education quality improvement is to have a market responsive curriculum, with an efficient and effective delivery system that enables the recipient to become confident in modern enterprise.

In the assessment also, the teacher is required to make sure that students are assessed in all objectives into considerations of learning outcomes. It is explained that assessment provides room for fairness as well as enhancing students' development of high level of thinking. The teacher must assess students in all language skills using paper pencil assessment, interviews, observation, portfolios, projects and questionnaires. These are the most techniques for active and participative learning. Active learning or learner-centered education (LCE) is considered an effective antidote to the prevalence of teacher-centered instructional classroom practices, which is widely claimed to support passive learning, and the stifling of critical and creative thinking (Rowell and Prophet 1990). The promotion of LCE is directly associated with high development ambitions, such as economic development, or social restructuring. LCE fits well modern pedagogical ideals for focusing on the provision of a platform for developing knowledge, skills and competencies for innovation, social development and economic growth. LCE requires a move from the commonly pure content learning and the memorization of facts to the ability of learning-to-learn, to the inclusion of methodological and social skills and competencies into the learning process, to the understanding of generic higher order concepts.

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In totality the syllabus is well organized and presented successfully to meet the intended outcomes. It has the desirable aspects of quality, continuity, autonomy and discussion. It is also updated because it is relevant to current situation of the nation and the world as a whole. Such current issues include HIV Aids in Form II, ozone layer depletion global warming and environmental conservasation in Form III.

The objectives and competences are clearly constructed and stated to meet intended outcomes including national and individual goals in English language skills. Language is vital for everyone to communicate and this is where the access to cognitive skills, knowledge, technologies, attitudes and values can be obtained. The objective of this syllabus is to have a responsive curriculum that addresses the skill needs of the population and an efficient and effective delivery system of the curriculum. This would mean an adequate and qualified number of teachers, as well as sufficient and appropriate teaching and learning materials O-saki, K., & A. Ndabili. (2003). They should be available in all schools to raise student achievement, and appropriate mechanisms for testing learning competencies. This is a challenge in Tanzanian context but (World Bank Report 2007) said that to achieve education goal emphasis must be directed in expanding facilities through the provision of development grants to schools. Policy measures such as raising the average number of students per teacher, increasing the average number of teaching periods per week, increasing class size, especially at upper secondary, expanding open and distance learning programs, reducing tuition fees by half, and providing scholarships to students from poor household.

As previously mentioned the syllabus does not list a number of text and reference books to use at least five each Form. This is left to school administration and subject teacher to choose various books to use. This is a very good decision but the challenge is; can all schools manage to buy these books according to the needs? The answer is no even private schools in spite of their school fees collection cannot affect their textbooks needs. African Development Bank, (2000) remark that the bulk supply of textbooks to schools was found to be inefficient as the supply of the books is not always based on accurate information about the schools. This approach of providing textbooks also does not encourage the flourishing of local publishers and local book suppliers. Under SEDP (secondary education development program), the schools are receiving capitation grants which they use for the purchase of learning and teaching materials, including textbooks. This enables the schools to procure the books they need and in the quantities they can afford, but not the recommended needs.

The assessment section of the syllabus state that at the end of Form IV students are expected to do an overall achievement assessment intended to determine the extent to which the objectives of English course have been attained. This can be attained if in all stages of teaching and learning process, (LCE) was adhered with sufficient supply of learning materials. Several studies indicate that implementation of LCE in the classroom is problematic (Jansen 1999; Chisholm 2000; Leyendecker 2002; Ottevanger 2001). Where Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries have attempted to implement learner-centered education, the actual instructional processes were largely far removed from the ideal. One of the problems is that the teacher is regarded by the societies and culturally determined understandings of authority and teaching, including students' perceptions, as the provider of knowledge and the bearer of authority. These perceptions and the resulting classroom behavior will not change overnight. Although Prophet's report dates back to 1995, his observation that teachers rather adapt their teaching to suit their and their students "world view" and perceptions on teaching, is continuously repeated and supported by other studies.

Another challenge is that, contrary to the pedagogical ideal, the vast majority of students are not very active and visible, probably because they have never given the chance. Although there is little research about students' experiences of curriculum reforms, numerous comments and observations, point to the fact that students struggle with their new roles, which they are assigned by the intended curriculum changes. Students frequently share with teachers a common perception about what it means to teach, and are resistant to changes not fitting this perception. What is more, students' attitudes concerning learning and discipline have embraced aspects of international youth cultures. Students welcoming the opening of classrooms and the change from strict classroom organization and discipline, have problems in meaningfully filling the added space and freedom. Students are powerful influencers of change, and can be obstructive if the required attitudes and instructional practices do not fit their expectations. This is happening in various secondary schools in our country. Both student and teachers cannot jump from the current classroom situation and culture to a desirable ideal behavior. It needs transitional time for changes to be instilled in the mind of teachers and students. However, both can gradually grow and adapt to the new roles that are beneficial to teaching and learning. For such a process of growth to take place, support structures should to be available, but these are often absent or very limited in scope and time lines.

SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION

As to conclude, the main practical challenges for the improvement of syllabus and instructional quality that are frequently neglected for the development is that, teachers need to have sound knowledge of the content matter to be flexible to adjust to different ways of student thinking, and to be able to relate to the emerging questions and problems without being challenged in his position. Due to their own learning experiences and education, the content knowledge of many teachers in Tanzanian classrooms is limited, so in-service programs to sharpen teachers knowledge is essential. Teachers need to have a sound knowledge of instructional methodologies, their aims and potentialities. Teachers need assistance and space for learning about instructional methodologies. Teachers' roles change from providers of knowledge to facilitators, and the changes in roles need to be both comprehended and accepted by teachers, students, and the society alike.

How to Improve English Language Listening Skills in EFL Learners

There are four principal venues that are frequently used in order to develop listening comprehension skills in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. By integrating these resources, the EFL teaching professional can effectively aid learners not only in listening comprehension skills development but also in multiple aspects of connected speech production. Understanding a listening passage can be made all the more difficult by four key influence factors including: the number of speakers in the passage, the technical difficulty and level of the spoken material in the passage, the speed of the speech and the accent(s) of the speakers in the passage and whether or not there is any external support provided for the listening passage. (i.e., photos, illustrations, graphics, vocabulary review or pre-listening activities, etc.) ref. Brown and Yule, 1983

Speech and Language Modeling by the Teacher

If the EFL teacher is a native or near native English speaker, then the dialogues can be modeled in addition to modeling pronunciation and connected speech examples. If the EFL or ESL teacher is not a native (or near native) English speaker, and this teacher does not have sufficient speech and pronunciation in English to model these aspects for the learners, then other English speech modeling and input sources can be used. Besides, we must not limit learners by thinking they can only learn and improve in a particular way. (M. Spratt, 2005)

Audio-Visual Resources

A valuable audio-visual aspect is provided to English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners by native-speaker-produced CDs and DVDs. Speech and cultural elements can be illustrated or demonstrated using authentic audio-visual materials such as movie clips and documentaries, student-produced recordings and TV programs or commercials, among many others.

Audio cassettes or CD – ROMs

A wide range of CDs and DVDs exist to provide native speech modeling of different speaking, pronunciation, national and regional English accents. Multiple varieties of English are commonly used throughout the world and having examples of these by which learners can be exposed to the differences in spoken English will be helpful in demonstrating pronunciation variables. Online, over-the-air and cable radio broadcasts can be especially effective and are readily available in much of the world.

Three examples of excellent online radio broadcast sites are:

• http://www.live365.com

• http://www.archive.org

• http://www.multilingualBooks.com/online-radio.html

Online Audio and Video

Increasingly, institutes of higher learning are making integrated online materials available to learners. These may consist of spoken dialogues, video dialogues, short stories, interactive games, poems, rhymes and riddles, spoken grammar, connected speech examples, movie clips, interviews, documentaries and even pronunciation lists. Learners can log into the website at their institution to receive extended practice materials to complement in-class learning. Many large, well-established universities, institutes and ELT materials publishers are making such materials available online to both clients and the general public. In addition, specialized websites for English language teaching have cropped up in abundance and offer a plethora of materials and didactic assistance for the ELT professional.

Some examples of available materials online include:

• Penguin - http://www.penguinenglish.com

• Pearson – Longman [http://www.longman.com]

• Heinemann - http://www.heinemann.com/

• Oxford University - Press http://www.oup.com

• Cambridge University Press - [http://www.cup.org]

• Heinle and Heinle - http://www.heinle.com/esl_d/

• McGraw – Hill - educational resources http://mcgraw-hill.co.uk/kingscourt/

• Harvard University – Open Courseware

http://oedb.org/library/features/236-open-courseware-collections

A web search using “online English language teaching materials” will yield a virtual bonanza of materials, planning and resources for the time-strapped English teacher.

Although listening comprehension skills of themselves cannot be “taught”, the English (EFL) teacher can guide the learner’s practice in listening and increment their intensity of study and practice to aid in the development of listening comprehension skills in EFL learners. This can be especially effective when the learners live in one Braj Kashru’s “outer circle” countries (B. Kashru, 1980) where there may well be a quite limited exposure to spoken English available for the English language learners. English teachers should be resourceful in identifying and acquiring materials to augment their classes in proving as broad a variety of listening comprehension materials as possible for their classes. Thus, by integrating any and all available resources, any English language teaching professional can effectively aid learners not only in developing their listening comprehension skills but also in the demonstration of multiple aspects of connected speech in worldwide Englishes.

Developing English Language Speaking and Conversation Skills in LEP Learners

Focus on Speaking

When asked by the Department Director to "focus on developing speaking ability" with a group of adult university learners supposedly in the upper intermediate level, I embarked on a program involving multiple integrated skills. These were LEP learners with passable knowledge of grammar, but below-standard oral communications skills. Their English Language speaking skills needed urgent development.

Speaking and listening are complimentary Language skills. (S. Thornbury, 2002; Brown and Yule, 1983) "If you can say it, you'll understand it when you hear it", is a mantra I've taught and learned language by for more than a decade of my English language teaching experience.

Useful Criteria

In developing speaking and conversation skills I've found the following strategies to be useful:

o Use a survey or questionnaire to determine learner interests, background, learning styles, etc. (L.M. Lynch, 2004)

o Play speaking and vocabulary games for practice

o Give frequent and regularly recorded oral evaluations
(M. Thompson, 2001; Eggan / Kauchak, 1994; Hilles ref. by Thompson, 2001)

A Speech Development Program

Preparing a speech development program begins with an oral evaluation of each learner. A voice recorder or video camera both are useful aids. Played back, the teacher then has opportunity to analyze speech patterns and problems in more detail, noting such aspects as:

o Pronunciation (G. Kelly, 2003)

o Connected speech (G. Kelly, 2003)

o Grammar use in context (M. Swan, C. Walter, 2002)

o Discourse markers

o Fluency

o Vocabulary / lexis use in context (A: Worrall,1965; H. Setzler, 1981; R. Dixson, 1983)

Analysis Tools

A video recorder (analog or digital) allows the teacher to make note of physical mannerisms that accompany the learners' speech as well as the speech itself. Relevant and recordable speech-associated traits (C. Ashcroft, 1993) include:

o Rocking motion of the body or head

o Arm, hand and / or facial gestures

o Foot tapping, leg swaying

o Posture, head and / or body positions

o Other physical idiosyncrasies

A survey or questionnaire which takes the learners only a few minutes to check off, select or answer short questions can provide needed, in-depth information on their interests, hobbies, family, preferred learning styles, motivations and other aspects essential in preparing and conducting an effective speaking development program.

Effective Speaking Practice Activities

A selection of speaking practice activities to offer multiple opportunities for oral discourse must be programmed. Although many learners are shy or self-conscious about speaking in front of others, with practice, this soon diminishes to manageable levels as learners gain confidence.

Effective Activities are ones such as:

o Speech - generating Games (A. Lloyd, A. Prier,2000; J. Hadfield, 1984)

o Oral communication - based short activities (P. Ur, A. Wright, 1996)

o Oral presentations (D. Gutierrez, 2005)

o Dialogues (E. Hall, 1967)

Summary

Since speaking and listening are complimentary language skills, by applying a program based on complimentary speaking and listening comprehension development, learners can improve their English language speaking and conversation skills by using multiple integrated skills-based activities. Using language experience with adults (K. Kennedy, S. Roeder, 1975) and teaching vocabulary / lexis in context are highly beneficial in speaking skills development. (V. French, 1983) Regular practice, assignments and oral production involving a spectrum of oral discourse methods will be an invaluable resource for both the English language learners and the English language teacher.

Top Reasons That Made English a Dominant Language

If you can speak English, you will probably be able to communicate with someone in just about any major country you could visit. While not everyone speaks this Language, English is truly a dominant Language spoken by millions across the globe. Experts state that around a third of the world's population speaks English as their native Language, and many more study it as a second Language. What caused English to spread beyond the bounds of the British Isles and become such an important player in global communication? The answer begins with a look at the language's original speakers, the English.

English Dominance in the 19th Century

In the 19th century the British Empire was truly a global empire. As some said at the time, "the sun never sets on the British Empire." Great Britain held colonies on every continent, and the trade language in those areas was English. By the end of the 19th century, the British Empire's reach was global, and the language was also becoming global. This influence continued into the 1900s, and by 1922 the British Empire had an influence over around 458 million people, close to a quarter of the world population of the time, which meant that knowing English was important.

The Rise of America as a Global Power

Even though it is a relatively young country in light of world history, the United States has become a global superpower, specifically after World War II. America has a hand in politics, economics, and culture around the world. As such, English is becoming more and more important as a global language. When you add the influence of America in today's global economy to the historic and current influence of Great Britain, understanding English becomes almost essential to carrying out business in the current economic market.

English Is the Language of Technology and Science

As you browse the World Wide Web, you will find that most websites are in English or have an English translation available. This shows how influential English is in the world of technology. Since many of the technological devices created across the globe are marketed heavily in America, they are designed with English-speaking users in mind. You can see this in the design of the computer keyboard. Most standard keyboards contain the standard letters of the English alphabet, which is further proof that English is the language of technology.

In addition, English is the language of science. The Science Citation Index reports that over 95 percent of all of its documents are English documents, even though a majority of them are writing by non-native English speakers. The medical community also uses English as a unifying language, making it essential for doctors to learn if they wish to be able to read reports and journals about the latest medical breakthroughs.

English is the Language of International Organizations

When multiple countries come together, they must choose a language to speak. Often the language chosen is English. The official language of the United Nations, for instance, is English. The same is true for the International Olympic Committee. At the Olympics, announcements are made in the language of the host country and in English. English is also one of the official languages of the European Union.

Other Uses of English Cause It to Have Global Impact

English is the international language of many industries, including banking, computing, business, diplomacy, and even entertainment. An international treaty aimed at making communication easier made English the official language of aviation and maritime activities.

The list of industries or functions where English is one of the main languages spoken is truly never ending. The simple fact is that since the late 1800s, English has been spoken in more locations across the globe than any other language, and that fact, coupled with the economic and political power of the United States and Great Britain, means that English will continue to have massive impact on the global economy in the future.

Learn English in the Comfort of your own home!

12 Keys to Using Songs For Teaching Children English As a Foreign Language

Teaching Children English Using Songs

In answer to a reader question on using songs for teaching Italian children English, I gave the following twelve quick keys. They're equally effective, however, for children from any country, or of almost any age too for that matter.

Here they are:

1. You can use most songs for English Language Teaching, but learners usually prefer songs which are currently popular. Both you and your learners can collaborate on selecting songs.

2. You should also select songs with easy-to-understand lyrics, absolutely NO profanity, violent, illegal or immoral themes like sex, drug use, prostitution, gang violence, kill-your-mother, suicide, etc. (It's easier to fall into this trap than you think. Many popular song lyrics are horrid)

3. For motivating children take along a dozen or so children's songs on cassette or CD with the lyrics. Beg, borrow or steal a selection of popular children's songs and you're all set. (Okay, don't steal them, ask - politely, about a million times until they say "yes")

4. Most popular song lyrics are available online. You'll need to be very, very careful of downloads from sites like these since they frequently FULL of viruses, Trojans, worms and lord only knows what else.

5. Walt Disney has a truckload of great children's songs. Us e films and shorts directly or just a recording with display pictures for visual support.

6. In addition to the above keys, there are the standard children's favorites any primary song child or teacher can tell you. You can even use songs from your childhood, if you were ever a child, that is.

7. Use inter-active games and Total Physical Response (TPR) along with the songs. Choreograph simple moves and actions to the beat and rhythm of the song.

8. Keep a fairly fast-paced class going as children get bored and restless easily with their short, short, short attention spans. Change activities every 15 minutes or so - even LESS with tiny "Chiquiticos".

9. Try incorporating some simple "dance" moves into the songs too for some added benefit. Have the "kiddies" ad lib, lip sync, pantomime, swing, sway kick, hop, slide, glide, whirl, spin, dip, step, jump and wave - you get my drift?

10. Use pictures as an aid in teaching key words in the song lyrics. Cutouts, posters, drawings, anything that provides positive visual support and reinforcement for lexical elements, grammatical them, connected speech, pronunciation or use in context is fair game in EFL classes for children (and adults too, actually)

11. Practice a couple of the songs and activities beforehand in front of a mirror on your own. (See how silly you look! That's okay though, so don't worry. We can't see you)

12. Oh yes, and be sure to have lots of FUN yourself! Whoever said English and foreign Language teachers can't have fun too? (Certainly not me. Despite my scholarly appearance, sometimes I'm nuts in EFL classes!)

So "Don't Worry, Be Happy".

I hope this helps you with using songs to teach English to children. Be sure to check out the other article posts of mine like "9 Reasons Why You Should Use Songs to Teach English as a Foreign Language" on my blog for teaching English using songs.

5 Reasons to Use Popular Movies for English Language Teaching

As progressive professionals in our continual search for additional resources, approaches, techniques and methods for expanding our repertoire of English Language teaching tools, often, we need not look far beyond our immediate surroundings for inspiration. A commonly available resource of authentic English is movies. Are movies practical for English Language teaching? How do you go about it? What are good movies for English teaching? Where can you get them? Why bother using movies at all? These questions, and others, will be briefly explored in this series of articles. Here then, are five good reasons why you should use popular movies with your learners for English Language practice and acquisition.

1. Movies in English are widely enjoyed

A wide variety of learner types enjoy watching movies. It is one resource from which you can extract considerable mileage on a wide range of themes and topics.

2. Movies in English are easily available

Unless you live in Tibet or Borneo perhaps, movies in English are usually available from a variety of sources. Rental shops, Book stores, theaters, media outlets, record shops and music stores all have numerous titles avail at any given time. Offerings change or are upgrades as new films are released.

3. Different movie formats are available

Whether your available viewing equipment is VHS or BETA format, NTSC or PAL, 35mm, 16mm or even 8mm video, you can still find an expansive variety of flicks from which to choose.

4. The length of viewing is controllable

How long are your English Language class sessions? Fifty minutes? One hour? Ninety minutes? Two hours or more? No matter what length classes you have, movies can be adapted to suit the timeframe you have available. How? Simply use clips from films or "installments" instead of the whole film in one shot. This actually seems to work much better for many teachers and class groups.

5. Use of sub-titles and close-captioning is controllable

Another useful aid in movie-watching is the ability to turn on or turn off features like sub-titles in English or the learners L1, or the use of close-captioning in movies, documentaries or videos produced with this feature. Using sub-titles in English not only provides listening comprehension support, but aids in vocabulary development and reading comprehension as well. As the English language learners' skills develop, these aids can be turned off.

As progressive professionals in our continual search for additional resources, approaches, techniques and methods for expanding our repertoire of English language teaching tools, movies can offer us an easily accessible, dynamic resource to enrich and expand our English language teaching. These reasons contain only a few of the many benefits we and our learners can experience. In the companion to this article entitled, "5 Ways to Use Popular Movies for English Language Teaching", we'll look at ways movies, clips and videos in English can be exploited in the EFL class room.

Going Cheap - English Language Courses in London

London, known worldwide as the capital city of the English Language, has long been an expensive place for overseas students to study the Language.

That has all now changed thanks to the credit crunch. English Language Schools in London and the UK in general are experiencing a real upswing in inquiries. Massive currencies fluctuations have made learning English in London now far cheaper especially for those armed with Euros or currencies such as the Yen to attend an English language school in London.

This trend is backed up by the Worldwide Cost of Living survey published by the Economist Intelligence Unit, which compares the cost of living in 140 major cities around the globe. The survey uses a range of different costs into account, for example property rental, hotel costs, entertainment such as theatre trips and right down to costs of food and drink. Crucially the costs take into account currency exchange rates, and this is where the big savings come into play for foreign students.

The survey has shown that London has slipped from joint 8th in 2008 to joint 27th in 2009, a long way below many European cities such as Paris, Frankfurt and Copenhagen, and Asian cities such as Tokyo which tops the cost of living list.

So what difference does this make to the average student Booking and English Language Course? Take a 7 week full time English course, costing say 2700 Franks with accommodation thrown in. Between April 2008 and April 2009 any paying in Euros would have found that they are paying about 15% less than before and that's before taking into account the great deals available now on flights and rentals.

The message for anyone considering studying English in London or the UK must be to take advantage now before the currencies swing back.

Why Do English and Foreign Language Teachers Really Give Tests?

Why Test?

You know how your learners dread to hear, "Next class we have a test on ..." Why, you can practically hear their groans of displeasure even now. Even teachers hate tests to some degree. There's preparing the test, administering it and then the meager efforts to try to prevent the almost inevitable cheating. It's a cat-and-mouse game of "catch-me-if-you-can". Who's "smarter", the teacher or the learners? So considering the fear and dread that both the learners and teachers have of testing, what is really the role of testing, evaluation and assessment in English Language Teaching? The following are key points in consideration of English and other foreign Language tests.

Did you know that:

o Students learn more in classes that use tests

o The connection between testing and increased learning is well-proven in research

o Students are more motivated in classes that use tests ...

o The classes in which students learn most and for which they study hardest are ones in which they are frequently and thoroughly tested... (Eggan - Kauchak, 1994)

o Students expect to be tested - adult students expect and respect formal testing and are challenged by it... (M. Thompson, 2001)

ASSESSMENT means judging learner's performance by collecting information about it.
There are basically two types of assessment, informal and formal.

INFORMAL ASSESSMENT is when we observe learners to see how well they are doing and then comment on their performance.

FORMAL ASSESSMENT is when we assess learners through tests or exams and give them a grade.

In addition, testing, evaluation and assessment in English and other foreign language teaching can also serve the interests of four distinctive groups; teachers, learners, the administration and parents in the case of young language learners.

FOR TEACHERS:

Testing, evaluation and assessment in English and other foreign language teaching can serve the interests of teachers in at least three major aspects:

- Evaluation of teaching and didactic methods

- Evaluation of learner language competencies

- Teacher accountability to the administration and parents: i.e., are objectives being met?

FOR LEARNERS:

Testing, evaluation and assessment in English and other foreign language teaching can serve the interests of learners in three principal aspects:

- Demonstrate knowledge

- Diagnostic to point out areas of weakness or inability

- Promote study

There are five key Assessment categories (ref. Cucchiarelli, Panti, Valenti, 2000):

- Placement assessment

- Formative assessment

- Diagnostic assessment

- Summative evaluation

- Self- assessment

In the next part of this article series we'll continue and consider each of these assessment categories in more detail. English and other foreign language teachers, your personal insights, observations, questions and comments on this topic will be greatly appreciated.

Why English Is an Important International Language

Many people ask why English is considered an important international Language in the world?

Why do many people want to learn English? If we want to answer these questions, we can find many things that make English such an important Language and we must learn it. English is one of the main Languages used in commerce and spoken by millions of people around the world. Many people try to learn and speak English to meet their needs in their work. We can find that many Languages are spoken in Europe, but English is the language that many people used to communicate with each other.

Many people around the world could not stand on without learning English. They can't mange their business or communicate with their clients without learning English. So that English is a global language that everyone should learn it as possible as he could.

Learning English and master its skills of reading, writing and speaking will help you succeed in your business and get your work well. You can contact your clients and communicate with them any time in an easy and active way.

You will never need to a translator to help you get in touch with your clients and help you to know what is going on. You will be able to contact your clients and mange your business without confusing. English is spoken by the majority of recognized democracies in the world, so knowing English can play into the role of political freedom in some countries.

English language enables you to get in touch with the latest world information and commercial news around the world. If you didn't start learning English yet, you should now start to learn it as possible as you can. You can learn it in an easy and active way on the internet. Learning English online becomes the most famous way to start learning immediately.

With the knowledge and skills that English offers, you will be able to understand more about the world around you as events occur. You will be able to see English television shows and hear radio shows with more insight to the stories and culture of those involved.

Teaching the Difference Between MAKE and DO to English Language Learners

Distinguishing the Differences Between "Make" and "Do"

English as a Foreign Language learners like those whose first Language or L1, is Spanish can have considerable difficulty in distinguishing when to use "make" and when to use "do". Why? It's because in Spanish, for example, the same verb, "hacer", is commonly used to represent both. The trick then, is to find a way of aiding these English language learners with making the distinction.

Here's how I do it.

Make

Essentially "make" means to "create" or cause something to happen or produce a result.
You make a cake, make noise, make trouble or make friends.

Do

On the other hand, "do" usually signifies simply performing an action without alluding to the results. So you do aerobics or exercises, do business or do your job. You can do well or do badly, do better or do worse.

Other Uses of Make and Do

Depending on context, both make and do can be used in a sentence to give it different meanings. A good example is homework. Teachers make homework, but learners do homework.

The two verbs form a part of scores of idioms and expressions too. This can sometimes cause their distinction to be less clear, but usually the definitions given above still hold true. Some additional examples using "Do" and "Make" are:

DO

Do a dance, do a deal, do as you're told, do away with, do chores, do favors, do harm, do it yourself, do (it or something) over again, do someone in, do the dishes, do the laundry, do the right thing, do time, do well, do without, do your best, do your duty

MAKE

Make a contract, make a delivery, make a difference, make a list, make a mess, make a phone call, make a point, make a profit, make a promise, make amends, make an effort, make believe, make contact, make enemies, make fun of someone, make love, make money, make news, make out, make over (very similar in context to do over), make peace, make room, make sense, make someone happy, make someone laugh, make someone sad, make sure, make the bed, make time, make room, make tracks, make up (has multiple meanings), make up a story (same as create a story), make up your mind, make war, and make way

This is but a quick reference list to give you some idea of the range and distinction that using "do" and "make" can have in the colloquial English language. For the most part, after a session explaining and demonstrating these language elements in context, my learners have far fewer problems in distinguishing when to use "make" and when to use "do". I hope that this helps you and your EFL learners too.

Why Learn English As a Second Language?

Why not? It's the international Language of choice for so many organisations and businesses world-wide. Frankly, whilst the USA remains the dominant economic and political power globally, then English is likely to retain its importance and popularity. So if you're in the International marketplace, be it as a Sales person, an Engineer, scientist or politician, then maybe having a good level of confidence and competence in English is a necessity? Coming from an automotive background, I can immediately think of several scenarios that I have found myself in with colleagues from around the world where e better level of English would not only have helped them, but also moved the business forward significantly! Here's the non-English speaker in a meeting - maybe he or she is a leading authority on their subject:

Our subject hears something said in the meeting that he knows is rubbish - the speaker obviously hasn't grasped a particular point. "He's wrong!" - but how do I tell him that politely?
Again, our man listens (and understands from the slides being shown) to an idea being put forward. "That's not the best way" - but how do I tell them what the best way is in terms that they will understand and without offending them?
Imagine a particularly long meeting. "I'm thirsty" - but how do I ask for a drink around here?
It's getting to some more technical point in the discussion or presentation. "I'd really like to see the way that he calculated that" - but how do I ask him?
After the meeting - the social occasion, where business is often done over a few drinks, or a good meal. "I don't want to eat here; I've heard it's no good!" - but how do I let them know?
Getting to the point of the meeting: "That's a lousy deal!" - but how do we discuss this in the kind of detail I want to go into?
"I really want to understand what makes this colleague / customer 'tick' - it would make this project / negotiation much easier" - but I'm stuck for words! English is too difficult!

How many more reasons does a boss need to get his best people well trained in speaking English as a Second Language?

The (de)Evolution of the English Language

Never before in history has a single Language been as widely used as English. The number of English users in Asia alone is more or less equal to the number of Native English speakers worldwide: 350 million, more or less the combined populations of the United States, Britain and Canada.

The advent of the Internet has boosted English even further, about eighty percent of the world's electronically stored information is in English, and this widespread use of the Language has caused an increase in the demand for English courses. An estimate by the British Council reports that today more than 1 billion people are learning English for work, study or leisure. China is strongly pushing English language in its schools, there are more Chinese children studying English as second language than there are Britons.

Those among the native English speakers who believe their language will soon be the standard for worldwide communication should think again:

Firstly, it can hardly be considered their language anymore, since the vast majority of English users are not native speakers. English is a living language and like all languages it evolves, it changes and adapts itself according to its environment and - especially - the cultural and historical background of its speakers, often mingling with idioms and linguistic structires of the local language. There is no longer one English, but rather various adapted forms of the language, often with dramatic changes in spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar.

Secondly, the Internet fastlane is producing an even more interesting phenomenon, when one would imagine such a widespread resource as the Web to become a solid reference for spelling and grammar, we are met with quite the opposite, English over the Net is evolving, or rather de-evolving towards a more simplified form.

More and more frequently we encounter what might look like harmless spelling mistakes; blogs, newsletters, chats and forums are full of them. At a closer look we might notice that some of these altered forms are consistent across the Web, in some cases we might encounter simplifications, such as there used indifferently as 'there' or 'their', or phonetic shifts, caused by the natural tendency to spell similar sounds the same way: thus unstressed _ent and _ant both sound the same and tend to be spelled _ant e.g. consistant.

Other changes might involve the tendency to either spell 's no matter what grammar is involved, two chair's or the opposite, its for 'it is' pronoun + verb or 'its own' possessive pronoun.

The result of this might be surprising and, for the purists, rather unsettling. If there ever will be a common world language, it won't look or sound much like English anymore. Current trends might produce a language with simplified grammar, she look chair, phonetic spelling ther is a tendansy to bad wether and foreign words Hungry kya 'Are you hungry?' a mixture of English and Hindi found in a recent ad for Domino's pizza in India.

Being a living language, the de-evolution of English seems unstoppable, in a certain sense this is a signal of its good health and of its massive usage in today's world. Only dead languages never change.

International English Language Jobs

Many employers throughout the world are offering English Language jobs of varying types to people who speak and write well in English.

English Language teachers - this has to be the most common type of English Language job offered nowadays. English language teachers are in demand throughout the world, particularly in countries where English is not the first or second language spoken by their citizens. Teachers are needed to help non-English speakers to learn a certain level of proficiency in English needed for their educational or occupational requirements. For example, some English language teachers have to teach Business English in companies so that employees can converse with corporate clients.

Translators - to be a translator, one must be proficient in two languages. The first language is, of course, English. The second language is usually the native tongue of the host country where the translator will be based. The point in being proficient in two languages is so the translator can assist individuals who may not understand speakers in either language. For example, if you are a English-Japanese translator, you may help English businessmen communicate with potential Japanese partners or vice versa.

Interpreters - this is just another word for the same job that a translator holds.

Consultants - this is a blanket term for a wide variety of English-language-based jobs. For example, some universities seek bilingual consultants to help them develop educational programs for foreign students. Office staff may also have to be bilingual if they are to be based in the host country, but will require English proficiency skills to communicate with English-speaking clients and guests.

Media positions - in this era of globalization, many companies require bilingual staff who will help them in managing international operations. For example, if you speak English and Russian, you might be hired by an international media organization and report news from Russia. Media personnel often have to act as translators as well in this case.

Proofreaders - though this is a rather specialized industry, there is still demand for such people. Generally, proofreaders must also be bilingual as well, with a high level of proficiency in English, to meet the demand from international clients. A proofreader has to spot errors in grammar and vocabulary usage in certain documents.

Freelance writers - freelance writers come in varying types, depending on their field of specialization. For example, if you have a computer technology background and speak English very well, you could market yourself as a writer for articles devoted to computer technologies. You might even say you specialize in articles about HTML language. Freelance writers who have a field of specialization command better rates than freelance writers who can only write about general interest topics.

Office personnel - these also come in different types. For example, a company may need secretaries, typists, and clerks who speak English relatively well. If you are bilingual, you may be employed by a foreign or international organization.

As you can see, English language jobs vary from job to job. It helps if you are proficient in another language as well so that your options increase accordingly.

Why Learning the English Language Is Important

The English Language is a difficult Language to learn if it is not your native language. However, it is certainly a language that you should consider becoming proficient at if you want to get ahead in the world of today. To be able to make a splash in the business world, it pays to have a thorough understanding of the English language. If you are wondering why you need to make this a part of your personal and professional arsenal, but are uncertain of where it fits in, read on:

Corporate Growth

Many organizations are outsourcing basic functions of their business to overseas locations. Some of these jobs pay quite well and the more proficient you are with the English language, the better chance you will have of communicating. The better communication that you can establish, the more possibilities you will have within one of these major established companies.

Individual Growth

Say you run your own business. What if you want to expand your reach to a global marketplace instead of staying local? The English language is your key to being able to do this, because most every country has some influence within it - at least enough to communicate well in the language and avoid having to learn several different languages for minimal growth. In order to expand your horizons to multiple countries at once, establishing a good grasp of the English language is essential.

Building Relationships

Beyond work relationships, English also helps you to establish personal relationships and maintain them far beyond direct contact. With social media and greater educational travel programs now available, it is easier to establish meaningful relationships that last a lifetime. But language can often create communication barriers, and learning English is the quickest and most reliable way to make sure you keep these potentially enriching relationships together.

Writing and Speaking Better

Simply expanding your horizons through the learning of another language is yet another great benefit. The more that you immerse yourself with, the better chances you will have of writing and speaking better. You can also enjoy higher quality entertainment, such as Books and movies, in their original languages so not to impede with the enjoyment of the presentation.

Learning the English language is not something that you can do overnight. It takes a lot of time and effort to get it right, and who you learn it from is very important. A poor teacher can put you on the path to disaster, and it can take quite some time to undo the damage. Choose wisely, and you can open up a whole new world of prosperity.

Benefit of Learning English As a Second Language Online

If you are moving to an English-speaking country or are going to be a foreign exchange student, you will need to acquire extensive English speaking and writing skills in order to communicate effectively. Learning English as a second Language (ESL) can be easy with an online course program that lets you complete activities and exercises at your own pace, practice pronunciation and take part in in-depth learning tutorials that improve your skills. Here are some of the primary benefits of learning English as a second Language online:

1. Flexible learning format. When you choose to learn English as a second Language online, you can take advantage of a flexible learning format and ongoing class schedules. These allow you to work at your own pace and work through the activities and quizzes on your own schedule. Some online class formats do have a set schedule with lectures and presentations, but the majority are 'open form' classes where you can download materials and work through them on your own time.

2. Easy access to tutorials and reference materials. When you register for an English as a second language online program, you will be given access to a large library of tutorials and reference materials to supplement your education. These resources may include lesson plans, printable worksheets, PowerPoint presentations or even online videos.

3. Advanced pronunciation tutorials. While most online tutorials are designed with audio files that are embedded into the lesson plan, an English as a second language online course structure may have step by step tutorials that will help you improve your pronunciation. This goes beyond a simple audio file of a single word, and may include complete conversation and sentence pronunciation tutorials so that you can speak English just like a native speaker.

4. Reading comprehension activities. In addition to basic vocabulary building and grammar activities, an English as a second language online course program will include reading comprehension activities that allow you to understand new meanings, expressions and vocabulary words in different contexts. This is important when learning the English language because it exposes you to different uses of common words and phrases.

5. Essay writing skill development. Even though you will be completing your activities and lessons in an online environment, you can also submit essays for review and communicate directly with a native English-speaking teacher. This will give you a chance to practice your word and grammar usage and get immediate feedback on your work.

6. Video conferencing opportunities. Some online courses are offered through colleges and universities equipped with video conferencing software. This allows you to learn English as a second language with direct communication with an instructor or other students.

There are many benefits of learning English as a second language online, and with today's innovative online learning platforms, you won't be compromising the quality of your learning because of the reduced 'face-time' with an instructor. Some online courses are designed with video presentations, interactive tutorials and allow you to communicate directly with the teacher or other students so that you can learn as much as possible at a rapid rate.