Teaching Vocabulary to Learners of English As a Foreign Language

Vocabulary is clearly an essential part of Language learning and teaching vocabulary in a productive way is something which must be at the forefront of our minds as teachers of English. Teaching new words to learners of English as a Foreign Language at first seems quite a straightforward proposition. You provide the appropriate word and meaning much like an automatic dictionary and move on. However, the teacher is far more than merely a speaking dictionary.

There are many things to think about when teaching vocabulary.

How many words should you try and teach students in one class? How do you decide which new words you should teach to your students? What criteria do you use to decide which words are most useful? How do you guide the students themselves in recognising which words are most useful for them? What is the importance of active and passive vocabulary? Why are frequency and coverage important? Why is register important? Do all students need to learn the same words?

How many new words should you think about teaching in a class?

There is no definitive figure here of course, as every student is different, but lower level students can generally manage about 5-8 new words of vocabulary a day. At higher levels usually a few more.

What new words should you teach to your students?

Even if you wanted to, you clearly can't teach students every word in the English Language. There are upwards of 500,000 words in English so you clearly only know a fraction of them yourself. A typical B2 (Upper Intermediate) learners' dictionary contains about 55,000 words of vocabulary. The average native speaker probably uses less than 20,000 words actively. Reducing huge quantities of words to manageable learning is a significant challenge for ELT and one of the great challenges for teaching vocabulary is which words to choose.

What criteria do you use in choosing what words to teach?

Frequency and Coverage:

Choose words to teach that are frequently used. Telling students about how often words are used or in what situations you might use them (formal, informal, academic, spoken or written English etc) is something invaluable that they often can't get from a dictionary. Clearly, the most frequently used words will be the most valuable to learn. The words taught also need to be assessed in the light of topic, function, structure, teachability, needs and wants.

Polysemic Words and Word Building:

In English, many words are polysemic - have more than one meaning - and can be used as nouns, verbs or part of a phrasal verb. It is important to bear in mind these alternative meanings and uses when teaching new words. It would appear logical to learn these polysemic words as a priority. The important point to remember when explaining meaning is that context will show which of the various meanings and uses is intended.

Word formation is an essential part of vocabulary teaching, for example, the way that root forms of words change to form adjectival and adverbial forms with the addition of prefixes and suffixes. Learning about word formation raises students' awareness of the language they use. Teach students word building skills. For example, if you teach the verb 'to advance', you might also teach the adjective 'advanced' and the noun 'advancement.' This gives the student extra vocabulary immediately but it also indicates broader patterns within the language. For example, you can point out that 'ment' is a common noun ending. (Others include 'ness' 'ence' 'ation' 'ism' etc.) Typical adjective endings would include 'ed' 'ing' 'ent' 'ive' 'ical' etc.

How do words lead onto other words? How can you point students towards patterns in the language?

Another important aspect of teaching vocabulary is 'word grammar', some words trigger/collocate certain grammatical patterns. Countable/uncountable nouns are an example of this, the former can be used with both singular and plural verbs, while the latter with only singular verbs. Other nouns are neither countable nor uncountable but have a fixed form and collocate with only singular or plural verbs, e.g. people (plural), the news (singular).

Register:

Register refers to a particular style of language relevant to a particular situation or context. For example the way a doctor talks to a patient about a prognosis/diagnosis will differ in style from the way the same doctor will relate the same information to a fellow colleague. Similarly, the way we speak in a job interview will differ from the style of language we use in conversation with close friends. Students need to be aware how certain words fit into different registers. When explaining vocabulary, bear in mind that explanations need to include relevant aspects of context and usage, e.g. 'mate' is a synonym of friend but is used colloquially typically for males.

Topic Area Words:

You could select a theme such as 'weather.' The ensuing vocabulary would include: rain, sunny, cold, windy etc. This is particularly useful if the student is interested in a particular topic or if a topic area has a direct relation to their life or job. Not all vocabulary or topic areas are of equal importance to every student.

Passive and active Vocabulary:

New words enter the Passive Vocabulary of students. Students may understand meaning, especially in the specific context where they see a new word used but as yet cannot use the word independently themselves. To ensure words enter the students' Active Vocabulary, regular revision in meaningful situations is essential. It is estimated that a student needs to encounter a word 10-12 times before it fully enters their Active Vocabulary. Vocabulary, in the same way as Grammar, is learned through use. It is therefore very important to give students opportunities within the classroom to use the new vocabulary themselves. Students remembrance of words is relative to the degree which they have used the word, thus the more we get students to use words in a task of some sort - finding opposites, transformation etc - the better they will remember them. Similarly, if we involve students in presenting new words the better they will remember them. Hence, acting out definitions in a dramatic way - trip, stagger etc - should lead to deeper learning of the words. Sense memory becomes involved, taste, smell, touch etc, which further enhances recall. Discovery techniques where students have to find out the meanings of words themselves will be more effective than standard teacher presentation of new vocabulary.

There may be many words that students will not need to use actively themselves at a particular stage in their learning career and therefore they can remain in the students' Passive Vocabulary. For example, at Beginner level it is enough to know 'big' and 'small'. At Intermediate levels, you might begin to use 'huge' 'massive' 'tiny' 'minute' etc. At Advanced levels, you might use words like 'vast' or 'minuscule' to give a different shade of meaning or to adopt a more formal or academic tone. The point is that at Beginner level it is clearly not practical or useful spending time trying to get the student to use a word like 'vast'.

Vocabulary Testing:

Vocabulary testing has several forms, and as with all techniques in ELT the more variety in the classroom the better.

Examples include:

1. Multiple choice Questions
2. Matching (opposites/complements)
3. Odd one out
4. Writing sentences
5. Dictation
6. Close/gap-fill (with and without wordlist)
7. Sentence completion

Conclusion:

In the classroom, the teacher remains central to the effective acquisition of new vocabulary. Every student is different so their language learning needs and vocabulary requirements are different too. As a teacher, you are interacting with students face to face on a human level. You have an expertise about who the student is and what is useful for them to learn that no dictionary or computer programme could ever have.

Literature in an ESL TEFL TESOL Classroom - Teaching Literature to English Language Learners

Professor Colin MacCabe of the University of Exter School of English says that to truly know a Language, you must know something of the literature of a Language.

Literature is intellectually stimulating because a Book allows a reader to imagine worlds they are not familiar with. This is done through the use of descriptive language. In order to understand, the reader will create their vision of what the writer is saying. In this sense, the reader becomes a performer or an actor in a communicative event.

Using literature versus a communicative textBook changes the learning approach from learning how to say into learning how to mean (grammar vs. creative thinking). Conversation-based programs tend to focus on 'formulas' used in contextual situations so there is little allowance for independent thought and adaptation of language. On the other hand, literature-based programs focus on personal interpretation of the language so students begin to experiment with the language. This experimentation can be especially helpful to the students for use in different subjects such as science.

Per Carter and Long, the 3 main approaches to using Literature in a language classroom are:

1. Cultural model

Based on the notion that literature is the expression of:

Socio-cultural attitudes.

Aspirations of individual societies.

Mythic and universal values.

Text is regarded as finished product.
Associated with teacher-centered approach

2. Language model

Literature is taught for the promotion of:
Vocabulary
Structure
Language manipulation

Puts students in touch with the subtle and varied creative uses of language.
Emphasizes language observation.
Student-centered methodology.

3. Personal growth model

Concerned more with student's:
Maturity as individuals
Progress as individuals through reading

'Literature for life' approach
Promotes individual evaluation and judgment.
Learner-centered approach.

When adding literature into the classroom remember to choose some good Books that students can relate to. Visual books are very helpful to help spark interest in children. For older students, you can incorporate questions into the reading process that require thought and expression from the students. In addition, set aside specific times for reading. Don't worry if students don't respond well when you begin because they will start to enjoy it more (and therefore interact more) as they relate to the stories and experiences shared.

Some Literature School Basics by Lorraine Curry of the Easy Homeschooling Companion

1) Select a number of well chosen books.

2) Set a particular time to read each book.

3) Let nothing interfere with your scheduling.

4) Use discussion and research to create interest.

5) Process, by writing or narrating.

Each child should have the opportunity to read aloud each day to encourage pronunciation practice. During this time you can note and correct mispronounced words.

Older Students

*Present questions that require thought. Some questions may not have one perfect answer. Some may not have an answer at all. Nevertheless, thought is stimulated and learning takes place.

*Copy challenging writing in order to practice English skills and increase comprehension.

*Do extensive research in order to understand deeper writing such as poems. *Research authors, times and places.

*Report by presenting orally or compiling results of research in writing. The quantity and quality of written assignments should increase with older students.

*Solidify language-learning with a formal grammar course and a formal writing course

Some good online literature teacher resources:

Total ESL Resources: totalesl.com/resource.php

Total ESL Lesson Plans: totalesl.com/lesson.php

The Children's Literature Web Guide: career.vt.edu/JOBSEARC/interview/TEACHER.htm

Literature.org: literature.org

English Literature on the Web: lang.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~matsuoka/EngLit.html

The Literature Network: online-literature.com

Bibliomania: bibliomania.com

Literature Learning Ladders: eduscapes.com/ladders

BBC Arts and Books: bbc.co.uk/arts/books

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How to Improve English Language Listening Skills in EFL Learners

There are four principal venues that are frequently used in order to develop listening comprehension skills in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. By integrating these resources, the EFL teaching professional can effectively aid learners not only in listening comprehension skills development but also in multiple aspects of connected speech production. Understanding a listening passage can be made all the more difficult by four key influence factors including: the number of speakers in the passage, the technical difficulty and level of the spoken material in the passage, the speed of the speech and the accent(s) of the speakers in the passage and whether or not there is any external support provided for the listening passage. (i.e., photos, illustrations, graphics, vocabulary review or pre-listening activities, etc.) ref. Brown and Yule, 1983

Speech and Language Modeling by the Teacher

If the EFL teacher is a native or near native English speaker, then the dialogues can be modeled in addition to modeling pronunciation and connected speech examples. If the EFL or ESL teacher is not a native (or near native) English speaker, and this teacher does not have sufficient speech and pronunciation in English to model these aspects for the learners, then other English speech modeling and input sources can be used. Besides, we must not limit learners by thinking they can only learn and improve in a particular way. (M. Spratt, 2005)

Audio-Visual Resources

A valuable audio-visual aspect is provided to English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners by native-speaker-produced CDs and DVDs. Speech and cultural elements can be illustrated or demonstrated using authentic audio-visual materials such as movie clips and documentaries, student-produced recordings and TV programs or commercials, among many others.

Audio cassettes or CD – ROMs

A wide range of CDs and DVDs exist to provide native speech modeling of different speaking, pronunciation, national and regional English accents. Multiple varieties of English are commonly used throughout the world and having examples of these by which learners can be exposed to the differences in spoken English will be helpful in demonstrating pronunciation variables. Online, over-the-air and cable radio broadcasts can be especially effective and are readily available in much of the world.

Three examples of excellent online radio broadcast sites are:

• http://www.live365.com

• http://www.archive.org

• http://www.multilingualBooks.com/online-radio.html

Online Audio and Video

Increasingly, institutes of higher learning are making integrated online materials available to learners. These may consist of spoken dialogues, video dialogues, short stories, interactive games, poems, rhymes and riddles, spoken grammar, connected speech examples, movie clips, interviews, documentaries and even pronunciation lists. Learners can log into the website at their institution to receive extended practice materials to complement in-class learning. Many large, well-established universities, institutes and ELT materials publishers are making such materials available online to both clients and the general public. In addition, specialized websites for English language teaching have cropped up in abundance and offer a plethora of materials and didactic assistance for the ELT professional.

Some examples of available materials online include:

• Penguin - http://www.penguinenglish.com

• Pearson – Longman [http://www.longman.com]

• Heinemann - http://www.heinemann.com/

• Oxford University - Press http://www.oup.com

• Cambridge University Press - [http://www.cup.org]

• Heinle and Heinle - http://www.heinle.com/esl_d/

• McGraw – Hill - educational resources http://mcgraw-hill.co.uk/kingscourt/

• Harvard University – Open Courseware

http://oedb.org/library/features/236-open-courseware-collections

A web search using “online English language teaching materials” will yield a virtual bonanza of materials, planning and resources for the time-strapped English teacher.

Although listening comprehension skills of themselves cannot be “taught”, the English (EFL) teacher can guide the learner’s practice in listening and increment their intensity of study and practice to aid in the development of listening comprehension skills in EFL learners. This can be especially effective when the learners live in one Braj Kashru’s “outer circle” countries (B. Kashru, 1980) where there may well be a quite limited exposure to spoken English available for the English language learners. English teachers should be resourceful in identifying and acquiring materials to augment their classes in proving as broad a variety of listening comprehension materials as possible for their classes. Thus, by integrating any and all available resources, any English language teaching professional can effectively aid learners not only in developing their listening comprehension skills but also in the demonstration of multiple aspects of connected speech in worldwide Englishes.

Second Language Acquisition in Adult Learners

In our previous mini-article entitled "Language Acquisition vs. Language Learning" we mentioned an important distinction in the way in which children acquire their mother tongue naturally, by means of meaningful interactions with their parents in which the focus of every single exchange is communicative in nature.

Adults, in contrast, when trying to learn a second language, are usually presented with a myriad of grammar rules and patterns to master from the very first class. It is said by advocates of these procedures, that their cognitive development cannot be equalled to that of a child and that statement is very true indeed. However, the fact that there are important cognitive and developmental differences between children and adults does not by any means imply that language should be presented devoid of any meaning as a rigid set of rules and patterns which are essential to master. Advocates of this school have the perception that every single piece of the puzzle they teach (i.e. a certain pattern, rule, tense, etc) is going to be inserted into the big picture one day and the puzzle will be perfectly complete for the student to see and use. In reality, students simply receive piece after piece after piece of a big something that they are never able to tell what it is or when they will be able to see it, if ever.

Have you ever tried to make a really big puzzle without an overal picture of what it would look like when finished? If you have, you will have noticed that it may be a very frustrating and draining activity, with no clear goals and objectives. Every effort you make seems to be meaningless and you usually feel like drifting around aimlessly and purposelessly. Isn´t it part an parcel of the Second language teaching profession to find thousands of adult learners who could recite a grammar Book by heart but nevertheless are unable to communicate basic ideas naturally and fluently_ if it is that they can communicate them at all?

This, of course, does not have any resemblance to the way in which a first language is acquired. Nor does it mean that children and adults acquire a first and a second language in precisely the same way. There are obvious differences among children and adults learning a second language.

What was highlighted in our previous article is the need for language to be meaningful at all times, and this is common ground for both children and adults alike. Language without meaningful communication is as useless as Valentine's Day without lovers or Children's day without any kids (I apologize for using the same analogy as in my previous article)

However, a quick look at present-day language courses clearly shows that this is not the case at all. You will see from the very first lesson, that the students have laundry lists of words to master and memorize, grammar, vocabulary, grammar and more vocabulary to make them feel they can even "touch" the language, those pretty "tangible" patterns they learn lesson after lesson that make them feel so secure and confident. The truth is, in the vast majority of cases, that whenever presented with a REAL situation in which they have to use the language, more often than not they dry up and are unable to utter two coherent phrases altogether. Are they to blame for their "failure?" Of course not. If what you are trained to do exclusively is grammar , repetitions and drills, you cannot be expected to produce something different, something communicative. The magic
"click" that is supposed to take place in the students' brains after constant hammering and repetition apparently never takes place_ or if it does, in the best of cases, it is in less than 2 per cent of the learners.

What does this show? Clearly it is an indicator that must make us reflect on the importance of our teaching practices. Just because we as teachers learned things in a certain way does NOT mean that it is THE way. Pragmatic results clearly show that a grammar based approach to teaching a language is highly ineffective since language per definition entails communication. Until we come to understand this simple fact, we will keep seeing students dropping out of their language studies because "they are too hard for them, they are not cut out to learn a second language" and statements like these. And they may be true... They do NOT need to learn a second language. Then need to acquire it in all the sense of the word.

Developing English Language Speaking and Conversation Skills in LEP Learners

Focus on Speaking

When asked by the Department Director to "focus on developing speaking ability" with a group of adult university learners supposedly in the upper intermediate level, I embarked on a program involving multiple integrated skills. These were LEP learners with passable knowledge of grammar, but below-standard oral communications skills. Their English Language speaking skills needed urgent development.

Speaking and listening are complimentary Language skills. (S. Thornbury, 2002; Brown and Yule, 1983) "If you can say it, you'll understand it when you hear it", is a mantra I've taught and learned language by for more than a decade of my English language teaching experience.

Useful Criteria

In developing speaking and conversation skills I've found the following strategies to be useful:

o Use a survey or questionnaire to determine learner interests, background, learning styles, etc. (L.M. Lynch, 2004)

o Play speaking and vocabulary games for practice

o Give frequent and regularly recorded oral evaluations
(M. Thompson, 2001; Eggan / Kauchak, 1994; Hilles ref. by Thompson, 2001)

A Speech Development Program

Preparing a speech development program begins with an oral evaluation of each learner. A voice recorder or video camera both are useful aids. Played back, the teacher then has opportunity to analyze speech patterns and problems in more detail, noting such aspects as:

o Pronunciation (G. Kelly, 2003)

o Connected speech (G. Kelly, 2003)

o Grammar use in context (M. Swan, C. Walter, 2002)

o Discourse markers

o Fluency

o Vocabulary / lexis use in context (A: Worrall,1965; H. Setzler, 1981; R. Dixson, 1983)

Analysis Tools

A video recorder (analog or digital) allows the teacher to make note of physical mannerisms that accompany the learners' speech as well as the speech itself. Relevant and recordable speech-associated traits (C. Ashcroft, 1993) include:

o Rocking motion of the body or head

o Arm, hand and / or facial gestures

o Foot tapping, leg swaying

o Posture, head and / or body positions

o Other physical idiosyncrasies

A survey or questionnaire which takes the learners only a few minutes to check off, select or answer short questions can provide needed, in-depth information on their interests, hobbies, family, preferred learning styles, motivations and other aspects essential in preparing and conducting an effective speaking development program.

Effective Speaking Practice Activities

A selection of speaking practice activities to offer multiple opportunities for oral discourse must be programmed. Although many learners are shy or self-conscious about speaking in front of others, with practice, this soon diminishes to manageable levels as learners gain confidence.

Effective Activities are ones such as:

o Speech - generating Games (A. Lloyd, A. Prier,2000; J. Hadfield, 1984)

o Oral communication - based short activities (P. Ur, A. Wright, 1996)

o Oral presentations (D. Gutierrez, 2005)

o Dialogues (E. Hall, 1967)

Summary

Since speaking and listening are complimentary language skills, by applying a program based on complimentary speaking and listening comprehension development, learners can improve their English language speaking and conversation skills by using multiple integrated skills-based activities. Using language experience with adults (K. Kennedy, S. Roeder, 1975) and teaching vocabulary / lexis in context are highly beneficial in speaking skills development. (V. French, 1983) Regular practice, assignments and oral production involving a spectrum of oral discourse methods will be an invaluable resource for both the English language learners and the English language teacher.

Teaching the Difference Between MAKE and DO to English Language Learners

Distinguishing the Differences Between "Make" and "Do"

English as a Foreign Language learners like those whose first Language or L1, is Spanish can have considerable difficulty in distinguishing when to use "make" and when to use "do". Why? It's because in Spanish, for example, the same verb, "hacer", is commonly used to represent both. The trick then, is to find a way of aiding these English language learners with making the distinction.

Here's how I do it.

Make

Essentially "make" means to "create" or cause something to happen or produce a result.
You make a cake, make noise, make trouble or make friends.

Do

On the other hand, "do" usually signifies simply performing an action without alluding to the results. So you do aerobics or exercises, do business or do your job. You can do well or do badly, do better or do worse.

Other Uses of Make and Do

Depending on context, both make and do can be used in a sentence to give it different meanings. A good example is homework. Teachers make homework, but learners do homework.

The two verbs form a part of scores of idioms and expressions too. This can sometimes cause their distinction to be less clear, but usually the definitions given above still hold true. Some additional examples using "Do" and "Make" are:

DO

Do a dance, do a deal, do as you're told, do away with, do chores, do favors, do harm, do it yourself, do (it or something) over again, do someone in, do the dishes, do the laundry, do the right thing, do time, do well, do without, do your best, do your duty

MAKE

Make a contract, make a delivery, make a difference, make a list, make a mess, make a phone call, make a point, make a profit, make a promise, make amends, make an effort, make believe, make contact, make enemies, make fun of someone, make love, make money, make news, make out, make over (very similar in context to do over), make peace, make room, make sense, make someone happy, make someone laugh, make someone sad, make sure, make the bed, make time, make room, make tracks, make up (has multiple meanings), make up a story (same as create a story), make up your mind, make war, and make way

This is but a quick reference list to give you some idea of the range and distinction that using "do" and "make" can have in the colloquial English language. For the most part, after a session explaining and demonstrating these language elements in context, my learners have far fewer problems in distinguishing when to use "make" and when to use "do". I hope that this helps you and your EFL learners too.

7 Qualities of Highly Successful Foreign Language Learners

So you have either started learning a foreign Language or you want to learn one? Good for you! I have successfully mastered two Languages and although it wasn't easy, I learned that there are certain qualities shared by all bi-lingual people.

Make a commitment to master the language. This is absolutely crucial for your success. You must have a solid commitment and determination that you are going to master the language no matter how long it takes and what it takes to do it. This includes a commitment to the time and money that it will take and it will take both of these especially since some kind of immersion program is going to be necessary in order to master the language you have chosen.

Set goals for learning your chosen language. Divide your goals up by categories such as speaking, reading, writing and vocabulary. Fix goals for the week, month, and year. Be specific and realistic. Make sure that you have the time necessary to actually reach the goals you have set for yourself.

Obtain the proper language learning materials. This includes Books and audio materials as well as any relevant internet learning sites. If you need help with this, ask around in online forums or for advice for anyone else you know that has already learned the language you want to learn.

Study every day for at least ten minutes. The human brain cannot handle learning a language for one hour one day, none the next and five minutes the next. You must schedule specific times for studying the language and plan out what you will learn during that time. You should at minimum spent part of the time memorizing vocabulary words and part of the time either on grammar or listening to the language.

Find others who speak the language no mater what level they are at and then arrange to practice with them. You can find a lot of language groups by either looking for a local foreign language association such as the l'alliance francaise for French as well as on meetup.com.

Watch DVD's of Disney or other familiar movies dubbed in the language and listen to familiar music in the language. It will be easier to understand these and it makes it easier to learn how to think in the foreign language and this is crucial to developing fluency.

Obtain a pen pal who is a native speaker and practice with him or her. You can find plenty of these online. This will help you learn more about the culture as well as to practice the language. Consider also calling the person using some kind of an internet phone such as skype in order to practice speaking orally.

In short you can master a foreign language if you are committed to the process and if you put forth the work it takes to do it successfully.